Post-War Insanity Essay - 1191 Words

Post-war Insanity â€Å"This is a novel somewhat in the telegraphic schizophrenic manner of tales of the planet Tralfamadore, where the flying saucers come from.† Insanity is a major theme in Kurt Vonnegut’s life and in turn his novels tend to be a release for his thoughts of mental illness. Vonnegut’s characters tend to embody him or at least characteristics of himself. His characters generally suffer from mild insanity and therefore hints that Vonnegut himself is possibly mildly insane. In each of his novels there are characters that are highly related to Vonnegut such as Kilgore Trout, Billy Pilgrim, and Eliot Rosewater. Each of these characters appear in different novels to help develop the plot and continue the relative†¦show more content†¦On top of that he doubts his own judgement. â€Å"He had fallen asleep at work. It had been funny at first. Now Billy was starting to get worried about it, about his mind in general. He tried to remember how old he was, couldn’t. He tried to remember what year it was. He couldn’t remember that either.† (Slaughterhouse-Five 56) These flashbacks are told later in better detail, â€Å"†¦for he was simultaneously on foot in Germany in 1944 and riding his Cadillac in 1967. Germany dropped away, and 1967 became bright and clear.† (Slaughterhouse-Five His flashbacks happened at any time, even while driving, indicating a severe case of Post- Traumatic Stress Syndrome. Apathy is also a major problem with the traumas of war. This apathy could be related to the apathy experienced after war or its following flashbacks. Many things do not concern Billy Pilgrim as he has disassociated himself from the world. He no longer lives in what we refer to as reality. â€Å"†¦both found life meaningless, partly because of what they had seen in the war.† (Slaughterhouse-Five 101) Common day life has become too difficult to deal with, hence the lack of emotion Billy has. In dealing with this post-war trauma, Billy becomes â€Å"unstuck in time.† He mentally travels through time to a place where he more is more comfortable being. He avoids all touch with reality. Eliot Rosewater is another VonnegutShow MoreRelatedMasculinity : Masculinity And Masculinity1850 Words   |  8 PagesFilm-makers have created innovative ways in which femininity and masculinity play a role in society. At the end of World War II, there were many interpretations on what it meant to be a man† most notably for soldiers returning home from the war whom were either unemployed, handicap and/or suffering from PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder). Film and television acted as pivotal agents that influenced a change in the way masculinity was defined. They explored social values as they refer to the ideasRead MoreBilly Pilgrims Presentations of Metal Illness in Kurt Vonnegut’s Slaughterhouse Five1286 Words   |  5 Pagesprisoner of war, World War II veteran, a zoo display for aliens, and a frequent time traveler. The character Billy is a controversial subject, because readers cannot discern whether he is sane and has fantastical experiences or is insane and deserves to be in a mental hospital. Billy Pilgrim may be many things, but is Billy simply a fictional character or a portrayal of Vonnegut’s own insanity. Billy displays the symptoms for various mental illnesses, primarily schizophrenia and post-traumatic-stress-disorderRead MoreMacbeth Essay819 Words   |  4 Pagesspecifics of his conditions help explain the peculiarities of the play. Macbeth’s character was perhaps the culmination of all the psychological disorders known at Shakespeare’s day. He experienced disorders such as split personality, schizophrenia, and post traumatic stress. These disorders could be caused by stress on the battlefield and a poor spousal relationship. After Macbeth is diagnosed with said conditions the existence of Banquo, the witches, the murderers, and Fleance are called into questionRead MoreTimothy Findley s The Wars1163 Words   |  5 Pages Timothy Findley’s The Wars portrays the effects of war on soldiers in battle, as well as the members of family and friends that suffer from loss and insanity. As each character over the progression of the story is exposed to change, the character’s ability to adapt has a significant correlation with their survival, those that can quickly adapt to survive can manage to get by. Soldiers must be able to suppress the extreme stress on the battlefield. Those that cannot overcome these challenges doRead MoreShould the â€Å"Insanity Defense† be Abolished in the Remaining 45 States? 1248 Words   |  5 Pagesjustice and what is best for the citizens. This is our government, since its founding, they has promised to protect us and to have its best interests at heart. Somethings in our system are debatable while other should remain just the way they are. Insanity defense is one topic that is often argued much about because of its moral concern. Should a person committing a crime go straight to jail or receive treatment if they have a mental disease? Going back to the founding of America and its governmentRead MoreMental Health in Slaughterhouse Five by Kurt Vonnegut 737 Words   |  3 PagesHalf Way Point Madness and insanity are two words that can be linked together, Insanity is a spectrum of behaviors characterized by certain abnormal mental or behavioral patterns, Billy Pilgrim displayed some of this abnormal behaviors which were mental, the readers see it in the things he does like he thinks he has the ability to go to see the future and also flashback into the past. In his novel Slaughterhouse Five, Kurt Vonnegut uses Billy Pilgrim’s actions, thoughts, and choices to demonstrateRead MoreCapturing the Reality of the Vietnam War in The Deer Hunter and Apocalypse Now1615 Words   |  7 PagesCapturing the Reality of the Vietnam War in The Deer Hunter and Apocalypse Now ‘The Deer Hunter’ and ‘Apocalypse Now’ are two films which deal, at a very personal level, with American involvement in the Vietnam War. Although the style and narrative of each film are quite different a strong theme of ‘journeys’ is what binds the two films together, perhaps more so than the theme of the Vietnam War itself. These are journeys of self-discovery and self-destruction and in theRead MoreThe Things They Carried Essay1015 Words   |  5 Pagesan excellent example which reveals how individuals are changed for the worse through their first hand experience of war. Following the lives of the men both during and after the war in a series of short stories, the impact of the war is accurately portrayed, and provides a rare insight into the guilt stricken minds of soldiers. ‘The Things They Carried shows the impact of the war in its many forms: the suicide of an ex-soldier upon his return home; the lessening sanity of a medic as the constantRead MoreSlaughterhouse Five by Kurt Vonnegut730 Words   |  3 Pages Insanity is generally described as being mentally deranged. They are unable to make conscious decisions on their own therefore they are placed in a psychological state that prevents normal behavior and perception. Slaughterhouse-Five explores the life of the protagonist Billy Pilgrim in a series of arbitrary events. As his life progresses, his insanity begins to progress and reveal more. In Slaughterhouse-Five, Kurt Vonnegut introduces Billy Pilgrim who is ‘unstuck in time’ and creates TralfamadoreRead MoreMental Illness in Shakespeares Works1371 Words   |  6 Pagesillness the most. King Lear is the story of the titular king, Lear, his decision to exclude his third daughter, Cordelia, from her inheritance, the abuse he suffers at the hands of his other two daughters, Goneril and Regan, and his descent into insanity, before dying. Possibly the first indication of Lear’s madness is when he declares, â€Å"Since now we will divest us both of rule,/Interest of territory, cares of state,/--Which of you shall we say doth love us most? That we our largest bounty may extend

Women s Rights And Political Regimes - 1437 Words

Women’s rights have been a historically controversial issues around the world, which is no exception in Iran, where the struggle between modernization and keeping the old traditional Islamic values has been a main focus between political leaders. Throughout the decade’s, women in Iran have experienced many changes and challenges regarding their rights and freedoms. Women’s rights in Iran have varied with the changed in leader and regime for decades. Each regime has dictated every aspect of women’s lives, from voting to their daily outfit; without their contribution or approval. Women in Iranian society were demerit due to laws and legislations which affect their freedoms. In Iranian society women are at a disadvantage whether from the oppression from political regimes or from the society. The current situation and the crisis faced by Iranian women are led by the political regimes. History of Iran During Pahlavi Era (1925-1979) Iran was consider to be a nation that was progressing towards modernizations. From 1926 to 1941, King Reza Shah Pahlavi established Iran as a monarch nation through democratically elected. He reformed many aspects of Iran by modernizing social, economic and politic. One of the things that he advanced was educating women and westernizing the nation. He believed Iran was conservative and needed to reform into western society. So, he advocated women’s right to have education and also unveiling of women. He obligatory women to remove the chador, whichShow MoreRelatedWomen s Rights And Rights1010 Words   |  5 Pageswithin a state under various levels of Islamic regimes. Beginning from the constitutional period from 1905-1911, women began to mobilize and organized acts of defiance such as boycotts, riots, and protests. Despite the numerous odds against them, including not being classified as â€Å"citizens† equal under the constitution, women ’s movements in Iran grew steadily over the early 1900’s. Women’s organizations produced scholarly publications discussing women’s rights and arguing for representation (Mahdi 429)Read MoreAp Comparative Government Summer Assignment1107 Words   |  5 PagesAssignment: Part 1 1. Democratic Regime: A set of institutions that allow the citizens to choose the makers of public policy in free, competitive election. 2. Procedural Democracy: Countries with free and fair elections for the real policymakers and eligibility of all adults meet the minimum requirements for this. 3. Substantive Democracy: Procedural democracy + more political rights and civil liberties 4. Democratization: the transformation from a nondemocratic regime to a procedural democracy to aRead MoreWomen s Rights Of Women1396 Words   |  6 PagesGender Equality is an attack on Egyptian Culture and a foreign agenda imposed by the west rather than a basic human right. However, this has not silenced Egyptian Civil Society on the issue of women s rights, with the Arab Spring helping many women find their political voices. The National Council for Women and other NGO’s in Egypt have worked tirelessly to defend the legal status of women and their place in society. The Arab Uprisings have made popular the belief that change is possible, and many establishedRead MoreThe Political Movements Of The 1980s And The Southern Cone Dictatorships And Guerrilla Warfare During Central America1540 Words   |  7 Pagesmarginalized as any other minority, which made them aware of their fate. They decided to accept into their ranks women from the working classes from socio-political mov ements. It was during this decade that was set up the Latin American and Caribbean feminist meetings. The meeting place was a place of debate, discussion but also of ideas and projects confrontation and was conducted by women who came from different backgrounds with regard to their social class, their origins, their sexual options, theirRead MoreImmigration Research : The United States782 Words   |  4 PagesImmigration Research Essay Will Leach Mrs. Bademan 1/2A In recent years, millions of female Middle-Eastern immigrants have fled the oppressive regimes from which they came from to seek safety in the U.S. During this seemingly abrupt process however, many have found themselves sandwiched between the barriers of internal country complications and external country complications. These barriers are evident in The Other Side of the Sky, when the Farah is attempting to leave her home country, but she cannotRead MoreThe Islamic Republic Of Afghanistan1704 Words   |  7 Pages(PDPA) seized power in a coup against President Mohamed Daoud in what is known as the Saur Revolution. This revolution is said to be the catalyst for upheaval and armed resistance that would follow for the next 20 years. Opposition of the communist regime resulted in the rise of guerilla mujahideen forces that quickly escalated into a civil war. The Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisors in support of the PDPA government and soon established a soviet-organized go vernment to stabilized AfghanistanRead MoreChile, A South American Country1496 Words   |  6 PagesChile s population is composed predominantly of mestizos, who are descended from marriage between the Spanish colonizers and the indigenous people. Out of those 18 million people, 11 million are just consisted of women population. Ever since, Ferdinand Magellan, the first European to set foot on what is now called Chile, women have been neglected of many of their rights. Facing domestic violence and gender-based violence, there are only a few things that the government â€Å"approves† Chilean women doingRead MoreIr The Corruption Behind The Scenes1750 Words   |  7 Pageskilling five thousand political prisoners overnight. The event is not particularly known due to the Iranian government’s substantial efforts to make sure the news never covered the event. With what started as the Khomeini regime, has over time grown into an empire equivalent to a religious dictators hip. The use of forceful power by the Iranian government to mask the events of the 1988 Massacre and the 2009 Green Movement has tarnished their reputation of being a credible regime. Iran, like manyRead MoreImmigration Research : The United States Essay739 Words   |  3 PagesImmigration Research Essay Will Leach Mrs. Bademan 1/2A In recent years, millions of female middle eastern immigrants have fled the oppressive regimes from which they came from to seek safety in the U.S. During this seemingly abrupt process. However, many have found themselves sandwiched between the barriers of internal country complications and external country complications. These barriers are evident in the other side of the sky, when the farah is attempting to leave her home country but she canRead MoreThe Effect Of The Arab Spring On The Muslim Brotherhood1716 Words   |  7 Pagespopulation are not met by its government, when there is a violation of basic human rights, when there is no hope, when people are oppressed, when people are at some sort of disadvantage. According to Steven Pincus, in Rethinking Revolution: a New Tocquevillian Perspective, â€Å" revolution can be defined as a rapid, judgmental and violent domestic change in the dominant values and myths of a society, in its political institutions, social structures, leadership, and government activities and policies†

Qualitative Researd Free Essays

Peaceful End of Life Theory This paper is written to examine Corneila Ruland and Shirley Moore’s Peaceful End of Life Theory and its examination on promoting positive outcomes for patients and their families during the dying process. Also, examine how the theory is understood in the Christian view as well as viewing ethical principles. As a Critical Care nurse I care for the dying patient mostly on a daily basis. We will write a custom essay sample on Qualitative Researd or any similar topic only for you Order Now During this process, I not only want to care for the dying but, I want to learn how I can ease the pain and heart break of the family. During my study of Theory and Ethics, I discovered Cornelia M. Ruland and Shirley M. Moore’s Peaceful End of Life Theory. This theory shows how theory addresses the holistic care required to support a peaceful end of life. I found this theory to be useful by being free of the suffering of distress, providing comfort, respect as a human being, having peace and by being with those who care. (Martha Raile Alligood, PhD, RN, ANEF, Ann Marriner Tomey, PhD, RN, FAAN, 2010). Ruland and Moore theorize that with easing fears of death, it can be a peaceful end of life event. Not just by providing daily needs and task but, also by caring for the dying (2010, p. 754). Many factors contribute to end of life situations for all patients, families, and health care providers. During the Peaceful End of Life Theory the standard of care is based on research in areas of pain management, comfort for the patient, nutritional needs for the patient, and relaxation needs (2010, p. 755). These factors are influenced by age, history of illness, religious values, and heath care concerns. Most of our efforts as humans are to improve our quality of life. Understanding the importance of having a peaceful transition into another stage of life is beneficial. Death is always inevitable and always a factor in the lives of family members facing such a stressful time. We should strive to help minimize pain and suffering at the end of our life’s journey with peace and comfort. Providing comfort is the most important part of quality care with an advanced illness. Within the peaceful EOL theory there are major concepts that are examined and reviewed by patients that are in the dying process. EOL care focuses primarily on comfort when a cure is no longer possible. Also, being free of pain is mostly the central part of many patients going through the EOL experience. A treatment plan should take place when a patient is experiencing pain. Becoming pain free is one of the major concerns of people dying (Dunn, 2001). To have peace with yourself and your loved one, you must distinguish your pain from their pain. Showing respect and having dignity helps the patient feel that they are still loved and cherished as individuals. Having peace with the decisions they have made and the outcome helps the patient transition over into the EOL concept. I feel that if a patient is not at peace with death and dying then it makes it extremely hard for the family. If a patient is having no worries or fears to leave this earth, then they are physically ready, psychologically ready and spiritually ready to face the end of their life. The last concept to talk about is being close to their families in a trying time (2010, p. 756). Feeling at peace and having closeness to others helps the patient transition peacefully which could be the scariest part of dying. During any point of illness patients and families need to be prepared emotionally and spiritually for death (Dunn, 2001). Ruland and Moore identified six theoretical assertions for the peaceful end of life theory that include: monitoring and administering pain meds, getting family involved in decision making regarding decisions that need to be made for the patient, relieving physical discomfort by encouraging rest periods, relaxation, provide support to the patient and family members, encourage family participation with patient care and last, monitoring the patients comfort, dignity and respect (2010, p. 757). Critique Clarity In the peaceful end of life theory all of its theory has been covered and has clearly been understood. The assumption of the theory, that providing comfort for the patient allows a better transition into the stages of the end of life to supporting the family through difficult times shows how the concept varies in different degrees, but are all important to the theory (2010, p. 758). Simplicity The EOL theory has been described as one of the higher levels of middle range theories. It focuses on what is important to the patient at the end of life and how the patient views life. It also has several different aims and aspects on how one values the comfort and dignity throughout the rest of their life (2010, p. 59). Generality The peaceful end of life theory concept came from a Norwegian context that based a study on the dying. The theory is based on not being in pain, the experience of comfort, having dignity and respect, being at peace, and allowing the patient to be close to significant others. This theory allows the standards to guide a person through the peaceful end of life and allow s the family to respond and adapt (2010, p. 759). Empirical Precision Each part of the peaceful end of life concept is based on the inductive and reasonable part of guiding the practice. With the EOL theory its five concepts measured were mixed. Its observations were based on the patient and family perceptions of their care with the decisions made during the dying process (2010, p. 760). In the empirical precision the EOL theory illustrates that the five concepts were beneficial to the patient and the family. As nurses dealing with end of life issues, we strive to take care of the personal values of the patient but, also the medical, legal, and ethical aspects of the decision process get in the way. Sorting through these issues helps to gain respect with the family. Conflicts may arise with EOL decisions, but establishing report with the patient and families helps focus on the primary values of care (G. Leigh Wilkerson, 1995). Often time’s ethical issues play a big role in EOL care. For example, withdrawing care from a mechanical intubated patient is a big ethical issue. Are we prolonging life or are we delaying death. A lot of times holding people on through mechanical ventilation is not ethical. Sometimes patients get dependent on mechanical ventilation which delays death then the family has to make decisions to withdraw care. We should respect our patient’s autonomy and allow them the freedom to make decisions for themselves. We should practice beneficence, fidelity, and non-malfeasance as health care providers. Holding on makes it harder on the patient and prolonging the inevitable (Simon, 2008). As a Christian, letting my patient die with respect and dignity would be a victory in our Saviors eyes. Life is a gift. There is a time in everybody’s life that our body is not growing and healing, but failing. This is when we enter into another phase of our life. Having a peaceful end of life is choosing quality for the rest of your life. Reference Dunn, H. (2001). Hard Choices For Loving People 4th ed. Lansdowne, VA : A A Publishers, Inc. G. Leigh Wilkerson, R. (1995). A Different Season The Hospice Journey. Fayetteville, AR : Limbertwig Press. Martha Raile Alligood, PhD, RN, ANEF, Ann Marriner Tomey, PhD, RN, FAAN. (2010). Nursing Theorists and Their Works 7th ed. Marylan Heights, Missouri: Mosby Elsevier. Simon, C. (2008). Ethical issues in palliative care. Retrieved from Oxford Journals: http://rcgp-innovait. oxfordjournals. org/content/1/4/274. full http://rcgp-innovait. oxfordjournals. org/content/1/4/274. full How to cite Qualitative Researd, Essay examples

Global Leadership & Organizational Behavior-Myassignementhelp

Question: Identify and discuss the cultural similarities and differences between Brazil, Malaysia and USA illustrated in the case. Answer: Introduction The GLOBE Project stands for Global Leadership Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Project. This project has generated important research findings in the area of culture and leadership. This project has investigated the relationship between the cultural values, leadership, human condition, competitiveness of the societies and organizational practices across 62 countries in the world. This project has identified nine elements of cultural dimensions that have an impact on the organization practices in these 62 countries which include performance orientation, uncertainty avoidance, assertiveness, humane orientation, in-group collectivism, institutional collectivism, gender egalitarianism and future orientation (GLOBE Project, 2009). This report emphasizes on 5 elements of the cultural dimension such as future orientation, performance orientation, power distance, uncertainty avoidance and institutional collectivism and its impact on the online marketing strategies of Alizee airlines i n three countries namely Brazil, USA and Malaysia. Similarities and Differences in culture in Brazil, Malaysia and USA Cultural Dimensions/ Country Brazil Malaysia USA Power Distance High High High Performance Orientation Low Average High Uncertainty Avoidance Low Low Low Future Orientation Low Low Low Institutional Collectivism Low Average Low It is indicated from the above table that there is a presence of high degree of power distance in all the three countries i.e. Brazil, Malaysia and USA. This implies that the societies are classified into different classes. Besides this, there is an availability of the required resources to only few people. Along with this, the relevant information is not shared among the people in order to enhance their knowledge and skills. Along with this, The people in the society has a limited movement towards high social status. Limited people have an authority to provide order to the people of the country. Along with this, the information is dispersed from the centre to lower divisions (GLOBE Project, 2009). Besides this, the countries also has a similarity on the cultural dimension uncertainty avoidance, there is a presence of low uncertainty avoidance. In these countries people prefer to communicate with each other in an informal manner. Besides this, people rely on informal norms for taking informed decisions. People resist changing in a moderate manner. Along with this, companies in these countries take high risks in order to generate high profits. Besides this, people tend to keep few records of the information available in an orderly form. These countries have low future orientation which entails that the people in these countries believe in spending more money in comparison to save it. Organizations in these countries tend to remain rigid in the implementation of different policies and procedures to gain increased profits. Besides this, the entities consider the success achieved in terms of money to be separated from the spiritual fulfillment. In addition to this performance orien tation provides the information related to the degree of the entities to encourage reward, high standards and performance improvement. Brazil has low performance orientation which indicates that people in the country emphasizes on building strong societal and family relationships (GLOBE Project, 2009). Besides this, the formal feedback received from the stakeholders is considered as judgmental People tend to involve in indirect and subtle form of communication. Besides this, there is a high value of the people rather than their efforts. In contrast to this, USA has high performance orientation as organizations have culture to provide training and development to employees in order to upgrade and create new skills and knowledge in order to increase their productivity. Besides this, formal feedback is given to employees which become a basis for improvement in their performance. The importance is given to the efforts made by the people rather their position in the organization. Along with this, organizations give importance to become competitive which results in increasing their performance in the market. There is an occurrence of the communication among different parties in direct and explicit form (GLOBE Project, 2009). Institutional collectivism reflects the degree of encouraging collective distribution of resources and provision of reward to collective action by adopting different institution practices by the organizations. Brazil has a low degree of institutional collectivism which indicates that members of the organization are independent of the organization. Along with this, the important decisions are made at the individual level. Rewards are provided to individuals for their contribution made to achieve the group aims and objectives. The main aim of the economic system is to maximize the interests of the individuals. Along with this, organizations and people emphasize on achievement of the individual goals at the expense of group goals (GLOBE Project, 2009). Effect of Similarities and Differences in culture in Brazil, Malaysia and USA Brazil has low future orientation that implies that the consumers and non-consumers of Alizee take into consideration the price and place and season as a factor to make a choice of a suitable flight. Consumers prefer the flights that provides good offer as people tend to spend money rather saving it for the future. In case of Malaysia, the consumers and non-consumers of Alizee takes into consideration the cost, destination and advance plan to take a trip to make decision related to make a choice of the flight. Besides this, non consumers of Alizee also take into consideration the long term and short term wealth and promotional techniques adopted by the company. In case of USA, the consumers consider wealth management and planning of the trips in advance. Besides this, the non-consumers of Alizee in USA take into consideration the long term orientation and flexibility to reach goals to make a decision related to the choice of flights. The buying behavior of some of the consumers of Alizee in Brazil is affected by performance orientation i.e. consumers consider the efforts made by the company to increase its sales. In addition to this, the factors consider by the consumers to buy the tickets of flight of the airline is the price offered for online services, flight connections and implementation user friendly innovations. For the non consumer group the aspects of performance orientation are not relevant to affect their buying decision. The factors to be considered in performance orientation by non consumers include price offered to buy a flight service online, reliability and user friendly features. In contrast to it, the performance orientation in Malaysia indicates that the consumers consider ease of use, reputation and reliability of the airline. In addition to this, the non consumer group put emphasis on innovation, performance, high standards and excellence along with the features mentioned by the consumers of Alizee in Malaysia. In case of USA, the factors considered by the consumers and non consumers in relation to performance orientation are reliability safety, excellence and performance at the time of making online transaction with the airline. In Brazil, with respect to institutional collectivism, consumers and non consumers gather information from the external sources such as forums, blogs and other travel related websites for the purpose of making decisions related to online airline services. In contrast to this, the consumers and non-consumers of Malaysia gather information related to the online services provided by the airline is gathered from family and friends. In a similar manner, the consumers and non consumers in USA have take an opinion of friends and families to make a decision related to making a buying decision of online airline services. Along with this, they also take an individualistic approach for making decisions. In relation to power distance, the consumers and non-consumers of Brazil consider that the company makes a use of newsletter, e-mails and promotions with targeting helps in communicating the information related to the features of the products and services offered by the company. In contrast to this, Malaysia, the power distance dimension seem irrelevant as the companys online efforts are targeted towards the people who travel often. The efforts are targeted towards groups as well as individuals. In addition to this, online promotional efforts are directed towards business people and travelers. In relation to uncertainty avoidance, the consumers and non consumers of Brazil stated that they would prefer to buy airline tickets of other companies as they offer cheap prices and good quality of services as compared to Alizee. In addition to this, in Malaysia, the consumers and non consumers consider the efforts made by the company as risk taking, planning, self-protection and structure. In USA, the consumers and non consumers has a tendency to buy tickets online as they do it in a regular manner and the other factors include structure and avoidance of unexpected events. Recommendations It is recommended that the most common channel that should be used by the Alizee company in Brazil is its website. It is essential for the company to provide relevant information regarding the features of the products and services offered by the company. Besides this, it also includes information regarding the availability status, comparison of the prices with products of other companies and safe online payment system so that existing and potential consumers can buy the products by the use of online mode. Customers prefer to buy tickets online by the use of websites as it is considered as the safe and secure channel, although consumers have shift their focus towards the use of mobiles, e-mails, tablets and extra functionality provided by the desktop. The company uses e-mails to display advertisements of the products offered by the company. This has provided a positive response in terms of increase in the customer base and sales of the company. It is recommended that the company shoul d provide a mobile application to customers which includes several features which facilitates them to make payment, order and avail the products and services offered by the company. It is also suggested that the Alizee company should design its website in such a way that help consumers and non-consumers to buy the products and services online in Malaysia. Besides this, it should also provide a facility to resolve the issues faced by the consumers and non consumers through website 24*7. This facilitates in increasing the customer base of the company. Along with this, the company should use other online means to increase the reach of the products and services to existing and potential consumers such as telephone, mobiles, telephone, social media and so on. Nowadays, customers prefer to use internet for the purpose of buying different products and services offered by the company due to its convenience, comfort and increased speed. It is also suggested that the company should display advertisements on different social media sites which helps in spreading awareness among the potential customers. This facilitates in developing positive image among the customers. This results in increasing the sales and profits of the company. Besides this, the company should use personalized information to communicate with the consumers which results in building a sense of belongingness with the company. However, customers least prefers mobile phones to be used for the purpose of booking tickets of the airline due to presence of security and safety issues. It is suggested that the company should implement advanced technology in order to build a positive perception among the customers regarding the usage of mobile phones to book the tickets. In addition to this, it is recommended that the company should design its website in such a manner that it becomes user friendly for the consumers of USA. This is because, consumers do not prefer mobile phones to book a ticket in the airline as it is not considered safe and secure by the customers. It is advisable to the company that it should send personalized messages to existing and potential customers which results in increasing the loyalty level of customers towards the company. It is also recommended that the advertisements published should spread clear message regarding the products and services offered by the company. Conclusion It is concluded that the company takes into consideration different cultural dimensions for the purpose of adopting different promotional and marketing strategies for the purpose of increasing the customer base and sales in three countries namely Brazil, Malaysia and USA. it can also be concluded that there is a presence of similarities and differences in different cultural dimensions pointed by GLOBE Project in these three countries due to which the company has to adopt different strategies for the purpose of sustain in the market Reference GLOBE Project. (2009). Leadership Dimensions: Culture and Leadership. Retrieved June 16 2017 from https://www.tlu.ee/~sirvir/IKM/Leadership%20Dimensions/globe_project.html

Story beginning with She had never seen him before... free essay sample

She had never seen him before. .. BY GALAXY 029 Write a story beginning, She had never seen him before. She had never seen him before. But somehow strangely, there was a funny familiarity about him. Up and down she observed him, trying to recall her In memories pertaining to this guest but she kept drawing a blank. That man stood there motionless as if he were frozen, and so did Jane. Well, to tell the truth, Jane was totally taken aback when she opened the door, ready to greet her mother but surprisingly found that the one standing before her yes was actually not whom she had expected.For a few long years Jane had been living only with her mother, and their life was peaceful and serene. Somehow Jane felt ominous, but curiosity compelled her to ask, May I know who you are? A little apprehensively, Jane waited for his reply. We will write a custom essay sample on Story beginning with She had never seen him before or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page However, the stranger Just stared at her, taking his time to study her. He was smiling but Jane could clearly see his tears welling up in his eyes. Jane frowned, a little irritated with this weird visitor: his odd facial expression had indeed made her uncomfortable!You.. . You are Jane? After a few long seconds, he muttered repeatedly, more to himself than to her. Perhaps he was afraid of being in the wrong, he asked again, Are Are you? This time, in an unsure tone. Just then, Canes mother reached home. She whizzed past the man into her house and pushed him away from Jane. What are you doing here? Again and again I have told you to stay away from us! she roared harshly. Jane looked at her mother, with a succession of question marks above her head.She wondered why her affable mother was suddenly being so rude to a stranger, wherefore her usually collected Mummy got angry instantly on seeing him and so on. These were too unusual; there must be something wrong. She supposed. l have every right to see her, Janice. Shes mine and you shouldnt curtail my right to do so, exclaimed the man, with tears streaming down his cheeks. Get out now! Stop bothering us! Bellowed her mother, glaring at him, and trying to shove him away from their door but the man was Just too strong.She then began to mound him on his chest with all her might. However, that man did not move as If he were a wall; he was not even budging. Both of them had totally forgotten about Jane, who was staring at them dumbfounded, until she started to sob uncontrollably and collapsed in a bundle of tears. Jane, my darling, have no fear, please stop crying, consoled the stranger. Jane glanced up at the man, and soon recognition began to dawn on her face. Daddy Daddy, she mumbled hesitantly. That man beamed, nodding over and over again, and grabbed her, pulling her Into his arms.He embraced her tightly, Ignoring her mothers feeble protests at his feet. It was a long time before he loosened her and led her to a couch. l know you will never forget me, my dear, said her father smugly. Yes, he was right. Even though It had been more than ten years since she had seen him, he still fit in her memory and memories which she had locked away came gushing and rushing back to her, flooding her with the sweet moments as well as the bitter ones that encompassed her heart.She recollected her house in Singapore, and her grandparents, her school, ND all her friends, her toys, and the doll she liked the most, but above all she remembered the furious arguments between her parents that night before they left that home. Gazing at her daddy, she smiled. She was overjoyed at being reunited with her father. She loved him very much and she missed him badly. It was too good to believe that this unexpected visitor would turn out to be her very own father! She was not very sure about her mothers thoughts, but what she knew was that her life was going to have a drastic change from now on.

Reasons to Learn French

Reasons to Learn French There are all kinds of reasons to learn a foreign language in general and French in particular. Lets start with the general. Why Learn a Foreign Language? Communication An obvious reason to learn a new language is to be able to communicate with the people who speak it. This includes both the people you meet when traveling as well as people in your community. Your trip to another country will be greatly enhanced in both ease of communication and friendliness if you speak the language. Speaking anothers language shows respect for that culture, and people in every country prefer it when tourists make an effort to speak the local language, even if all you can say in it is hello and please. Also, learning another language can also help you to communicate with local immigrant populations at home. Cultural Understanding Speaking a new language helps you to get to know other people and their culture, as language and culture go hand in hand. Because language simultaneously defines and is defined by the world around us, learning another language opens ones mind to new ideas and new ways of looking at the world. For example, the fact that many languages have more than one translation of you indicates that these languages (and the cultures that speak them) place a greater emphasis on distinguishing between audiences than does English. French distinguishes between tu (familiar) and vous (formal/plural), while Spanish has five words that indicate one of four categories: familiar/singular (tà º or vos, depending on the country), familiar/plural (vosotros), formal/singular (Ud) and formal/plural (Uds). Meanwhile, Arabic distinguishes between nta (masculine singular), nti (feminine singular), and ntuma (plural). In contrast, English uses you for masculine, feminine, familiar, formal, singular, and plural. The fact that these languages have such different ways of looking at you indicates cultural differences between the people who speak them: French and Spanish focus on familiarity vs. formality, while Arabic emphasizes gender. This is just one example of many of the linguistic and cultural differences between languages. Also, when you speak another language, you can enjoy literature, film, and music in the original language. It is extremely difficult for a translation to be a perfect replica of the original; the best way to understand what the author meant is to read what the author wrote. Business and Careers Speaking more than one language is a skill which will increase your marketability. Schools and employers tend to prefer candidates who speak one or more foreign languages. Even though English is widely spoken in much of the world, the fact is that the global economy depends on communication. When dealing with France, for example, someone who speaks French will have an obvious advantage over someone who doesnt. Language Enhancement Learning another language can help you to understand your own. Many languages have contributed to the development of English, so learning those will teach you where words and even grammatical structures are from, and augment your vocabulary to boot. Also, in learning how another language differs from your own, you will increase your understanding of your language. For many people, language is innate- we know how to say something, but we dont necessarily know why we say it that way. Learning another language can change that.Each subsequent language you study will be, in some respects, a little easier, because youve already learned how to learn another language. Plus, if the languages are related, such as French and Spanish, German and Dutch, or Arabic and Hebrew, some of what youve already learned will apply to the new language as well, making the new language that much easier. Test Scores As years of foreign language study increase, math and verbal SAT scores increase. Children who study a foreign language often have higher standardized test scores in math, reading, and language arts. Foreign language study can help to increase problem-solving skills, memory, and self-discipline. Why Learn French? If you are a native English speaker, one of the best reasons to learn French is to help you understand your language. Although English is a Germanic language, French has had an enormous impact on it. French is the largest donor of foreign words in English. Unless your English vocabulary is much higher than average,  learning French  will greatly increase the number of English words you know. French is spoken as a native language in more than two dozen countries on five continents. Depending on your sources, French is either the 11th or the 13th most common native language in the world, with 72 to 79 million native speakers and another 190 million secondary speakers. French is the second most commonly taught second language in the world (after English), making it a real possibility that speaking French will come in handy practically anywhere you travel. French in Business In 2003, the United States was Frances leading investor, accounting for 25% of the new jobs created in France from foreign investment. There are 2,400 US companies in France generating 240,000 jobs. American companies with offices in France include IBM, Microsoft, Mattel, Dow Chemical, SaraLee, Ford, Coca-Cola, ATT, Motorola, Johnson  Ã‚  Johnson, Ford, and  Hewlett Packard. France is the second leading investor in the United States: more than 3,000 French companies have subsidiaries in the US and generate some 700,000 jobs, including Mack Trucks, Zenith, RCA-Thomson, Bic, and Dannon. French in the United States French is the 3rd most frequently spoken  non-English  language in US homes and the second most commonly taught foreign language in the United States (after Spanish). French in the World French is an official working language in dozens of  international organizations, including the United Nations, the International Olympic Committee, and the International Red Cross. French is the lingua franca of culture, including art, cuisine, dance, and fashion. France has won more Nobel Prizes for literature than any other country in the world and is one of the top producers of international films. French is the second most frequently used language on the internet. French is ranked as the 2nd most influential language in the world. Oh, and one other thing- Spanish is  not  easier than French! Sources Admissions Testing Program of the College Board. France in the U.S.  Franco-American Business Ties Rock Solid,  News from France  vol 04.06, May 19, 2004. Rhodes, N. C., Branaman, L. E. Foreign language instruction in the United States: A national survey of elementary and secondary schools. Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems, 1999. Summer Institute for Linguistics Ethnologue Survey, 1999. United States Census, Ten Languages Most Frequently Spoken at Home Other than English and Spanish: 2000, figure 3. Weber, George. The Worlds 10 Most Influential Languages, Language Today, Vol. 2, Dec 1997.

Community week three Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Community week three - Essay Example Cleveland clinics give health talks to inform communities and individuals on prevention, management, and treatment of various health conditions. Secondly, the clinic offers management services for both acute and chronic diseases. To improve accessibility, Global Patient Services awareness should be done, as people are not aware of the seamless referral resource, which help to access care providers. Since the clinic is a nonprofit institution that is publicly financed, it should then consider the entire community’s needs in order to promote affordability. Its availability can be promoted through coming up with more centers to serve the growing population. The clinic is gaining more acceptability with the ranking it acquires in the health field because of competency in health care provision. However this can further be improved through reconsidering their charges which is a big barrier to accessing their services The growing demand for children and adolescent health care has necessitated improved technical expertise among the school nurses. Likewise, the nurses’ professional roles have increased. Today’s school nursing is not only about bandaging alone. A challenge comes in when this nurse is expected to handle a student who is managed by different health care providers for a certain condition. The nurse will therefore require the knowledge, skills, and equipments to provide quality care to this student while in school. There is quite a wide range of schoolchildren and teenage health problems that has called for the school nurse to be conversant with numerous technologies and protocols and Familiarize himself with variety of new drugs available for specific condition. (Cote et al 2013) There are different determinants to which health problem is prevalent to children and adolescents. (Nies & McEwen 2011). Some of them may include financial stability and locality. In inner city areas, conditions such as obesity are prevalent.

LGBTQ and public schools Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

LGBTQ and public schools - Essay Example According to the Code of Ethics of National Association of Social Workers (2008), a social worker ought to distinguish him or herself by exhibiting high code of conduct in terms of respect, discrimination, and social and political action. Through these codes, the social worker is seen as a representative of his or her client by ensuring social justice and enhancing social change with and on behalf of their clients (Schmidt, 2005). These definitions about social work and the social worker speaks for its self as to what should be the role of the social worker in the given scenario and case. It can therefore be emphasized that the transgender student and the school environment constitute a society (Looney, 2002. p. 12). The role and functioning of social work, therefore, come into the scene as much as the responsibility of the social worker. This is a responsibility that the social worker must play and play effectively to ensure that the transgender student is accommodated well in the school and that she is put in a position to adequately use personal abilities, which are her skills and knowledge, in a well harnessed manner to achieve her goals in life. Given the fact that the transgender student is going to be the first of that kind in the school and the fact that students and other stakeholders in the school have not had any previous experience of accommodating such transgender students and integrating with them, the best way to offer support to assist the successful transition and integration of the student into the school is to use a psychological approach (Transitional Roadmap, 2012). Meanwhile, it has been said also that the physical aspects of transitional gender are easier to deal with as against the psychological, as the physical aspects are easily seen and can thus be solved easily (Henderson, 2003, p. 140). What this means is that if the psychological component of the present situation is handled, more than half of the problem will be solved. In

Effects of social media on the real estate industry Essay

Effects of social media on the real estate industry - Essay Example Social media also represents enormous changes perspective for businesses. For most individuals, buying a home is a thing done once after ten years at most. Selling of real estates is the kind of business benefiting from constant streams of new prospects (Crowston, K., & Wigand, 1999). Social media enables real estate agents to build the reputation of their business. This enables them in attracting new clients. Moreover, social media enables them in networking in the real estate industry (Wigand, 2003).Social media makes it easy to reach out to more individuals but it does not assure that these individuals will purchase from you (Huertas, 2012). A business needs to work on still setting up its social media framework. After doing so, the business needs to work more until it gets the needed results. Knowing how to use social media needs a period of engaging more on hands giving a business the idea of how social media can assist it in succeeding given the problems faced by the business.I n conclusion, social media has made it informal and quicker for real estate agents to connect with their clients. It has given them a way of engaging individuals in their precise area and allowing them to inform their clients.Additionally, social media helps real estate agents to constantly post new releases and engage daily by responding timeously to their clients and potential buyers. It is clearly seen that social media has enabled real estate agents to build good relationships with prospective home buyers.

Knowledge Management in Malaysia

Knowledge Management in Malaysia CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 OVERVIEW It is so difficult and though for the managers of the organizations to apply knowledge management in their departments, because this major is still new in so many aspects such as business environment and organizational culture or behavior and it has a long way to be completed. It is hard for the managers to believe that, it has so many benefits if they use knowledge management tools in their organizations. Managers should bear in their mind that knowledge management is not an automatic practice, it must be initiated by people and have the support of the whole organization. Something like these myths need to be eliminated and the exact meaning of knowledge management must be clearly understood by managers and the rest of the organizations. This will help the managers to abundantly getting help from knowledge management and apply it in the organizations (Sobahle 2005). The study on American Productivity and Quality Centers International Bench-marking shows that, about 11 organizations are working on the knowledge management area which are: Arthur Andersen; Chevron Corporation; Dow Chemical Company; Hughes Space Communications; Kaiser Permanente; Price Waterhouse; Sequent Computer Systems; Skandia AFS; Texas Instruments; USAA; and National Security Agency, the following was recognized (Ishak, 2002): Share the understanding those techniques which can be used. Apply the techniques to new directions. Further more, the other issues which can assure the success of knowledge management initiatives are something like, emphasizes on the issues such as employees issues, top management leadership and commitment, organizational culture and technological infrastructure. This chapter approaches the literature review on knowledge management. In this chapter the try is made to clarify some of the most important key factors of knowledge management and analyze their respective literature. The attempt is made to show the different aspects of knowledge management. It has a brief introduction on knowledge management which is used by Malaysian organizations then it will be explain about the knowledge management frame works and architectures. In this chapter the most two important factors in knowledge management which, technological approach and human approach, are considered. This chapter will finish by the knowledge management concern, issues and at last discuss about the benefit of knowledge management will be considered. 2.2 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIA Over past two decades Malaysia has been transitioning from relying on a production based- economy to a knowledge-based economy (Chang, 2005). The concept of knowledge management in Malaysia was born with the establishment of the â€Å"Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC)† in 1990s to accelerate this concept in Malaysia. Actually, there are so many Malaysian companies which they are working on knowledge management and they realize and understand the importance of it in the professional life. In January 15, 2002, one of the prestigious magazines in Malaysia, Computerworld Malaysia organized the Knowledge Management Roundtable ‘A Vital Strategy or Expensive Toy. The participants from various sectors in Malaysia shared their point of views and approaches implemented and exchanged ideas in practicing knowledge management (Chang, 2005). As an example for the practical aspect, there are a number of organizations in Malaysia which are successful in knowledge management initiatives, such as: Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems (MIMOS), MAMPU, Bank Negara Malaysia, Siemens, Nokia Malaysia and Telekom Malaysia, Tenaga Nasional Berhad and Petroleum Nasional Berhad (Petronas) are examples of organizations in Malaysia that have embarked on KM initiatives. There are so many studies on knowledge management in Malaysia, and the structure of Malaysia papers in Malaysia seems to be incomprehensive, there are a few number of out standing articles to mention, which shows in table 2.1. Table 2.1: Knowledge Management: Malaysian Studies Title Author/ Date/Journal Nature of Work Intellectual capital and business performance in Malaysian industries Bontis, Chua Richardson (2000) Journal of Intellectual Capital Research Study (Conducted among Malaysian firms) Knowledge management in healthcare: towards ‘knowledge-driven decision- support services Abidi, (2001) International Journal of Medical Informatics Case Study (Universiti Sains Malaysia Hospital located in Kota Baharu, Malaysia) Managing human resources toward achieving knowledge management Yahya Goh, (2002) Journal of Knowledge Management Research Study (Conducted among Malaysian firms) Knowledge management in a public organization: a study on the relationship between organizational elements and the performance of knowledge transfer. Syed Ikhsan Rowland, (2004) Journal of Knowledge Management Case Study (Ministry of Entrepreneur development of Malaysia) Benchmarking knowledge management in a public organization in Malaysia Syed Ikhsan Rowland, (2004) Benchmarking: An International Journal Case Study (Ministry of Entrepreneur development of Malaysia) An empirical study of perceived importance and actual implementation of knowledge management process in the Malaysian telecommunication industry Chong Yeow, (2005) Proceedings of ICTM Research Study (Study among Malaysian telecommunication Industry KM critical success factors: A comparison of perceived importance versus implementation in Malaysian ICT companies. Chong, (2006) The Learning Organization Research Study (194 Malaysian ICT companies) KM implementation in Malaysian telecommunication industry an empirical analysis. Wei, Choy Yeow, (2006) Industrial Management Data Systems Research Study (289 employees working in Telecommunication organizations in Malaysia) KM implementation and its influence on performance: an empirical evidence from Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies Chong, (2006) Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Research Study (Study among Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies) Exploring KM issues and KM performance outcomes: empirical evidence from Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies Chong Lin (2006) International Journal of Technology Management Research Study (Study among Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies) An exploratory study on knowledge management adoption in the Malaysian Industry. Wong, (2008) International Journal of Business Information Systems Research Study (exploratory KM survey conducted in the Malaysian industry) 2.3 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IMPLEMENTATION FRAMEWORKS According to Von Krogh (1998), which he takes a business perspective stating that KMS help increase competitiveness, the purpose of implementing KMS in organizations are various. KMS leads to grater innovation and responsiveness, Hackbarth (1998). Davenport and Prusak (1998) provide three reasons why KMS are implemented in organizations which are as follows: Ø To enhance visibility of knowledge in organizations through the use of maps, hypertexts, yellow pages, directories etc. Ø To build a knowledge sharing culture i.e. create avenues for employees to share knowledge. Ø To develop a knowledge infrastructure, not confined to technology solely, rather create an environment that permits collaborative work. These three things which were proposed by Davenport and Prusak (1998) imply that KMS can support an organization in planning for and dealing with emergencies. Many organizations are still wrestling with their knowledge management and failing to realize its full potential. This is due to their lack of the support of strong theoretical foundation to guide them in its implementation (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). Unfortunately, many organizations do not have a clear knowledge management implementation plan in mind (Liebowitz, 1999). Therefore, in order for an organization to be victorious in its effort to manage knowledge, a guiding framework is essential. This is why in this part a review of diverse knowledge management implementation frameworks and models is presented. The framework consents to researchers as well as practitioners to measure the current state of knowledge management effectively and systematically. Thus, the knowledge management framework should provide not only a unified view of knowledge management phenomena but also help investigators study the field of knowledge management in an organized way. There have been few efforts to de velop a framework of knowledge management. However, none of the frameworks can provide a complete and generalized frame for knowledge management by defining fundamental attributes of knowledge management and their interrelationships because knowledge management can be viewed differently on ones background and interests (Chong, 2005). To know the exact value of knowledge management, an architecture of it, would provide the necessary understanding of different components like, knowledge management activities, knowledge management resources, knowledge management influences (Holsapple Joshi, 1997). The improvement of a framework is to follow and track the progress and maturity of knowledge management of an enterprise, so, it would serve to support the industry-wide improvement of knowledge management programs. Further more, it would provide an acceptable frame of reference for the assessment of the adequacies of an organization by government, commercial customers and prime contractors (Chong, 2005). The knowledge management frameworks can be classified under four categories (Table 2.2) Which are namely, knowledge creation framework, knowledge cycle processes of knowledge management, cases on knowledge management initiatives in industry and high-level knowledge management frameworks. Table 2.2: KM Frameworks and their examples in the literature Knowledge Management Frameworks Examples Knowledge Creation Framework Nonaka(1991, 1994), Nonaka Takeuchi (1995) Knowledge Cycle Processes of KM Bose Sugumaran (2003) Cases on KM Initiatives in Industry Apostolou Mentzas (1998), Lai chu (2002) High-Level KM Frameworks Holsapple Joshi (2002), Jarrar (2002), Wiig (1997) Nonaka and Takeuchi are tried to explain the progress and adaption between tacit and explicit knowledge. In fact, knowledge creation framework is not a knowledge management framework, the reason is, and it only deals with the creation of knowledge which is only a share of what constitutes knowledge management. Also, the knowledge cycle processes of knowledge management frameworks are providing a set of activities where the prominence is on the knowledge cycle processes or activities. They mainly address the phases of knowledge flow (from creation to application) in an organization without providing guidance on how to implement knowledge management. The framework on knowledge management initiatives in industry provide a reference to facilitate the structuring, analysis and evaluation of the knowledge management initiatives undertaken in various case companies. Lastly, High-Level knowledge management frameworks are the ones providing more detailed directions on the implementation of kn owledge management. This type of framework seems to address not only the question of what is but also how to because it prescribes and suggest ways for organizations to engage in knowledge management activities (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). In their review of literature, Wong and Aspinwall, try to have an organized review of the various available frameworks for knowledge management implementation. The acceptable thing for the review was to classify the knowledge management implementation frameworks, find out the short comings of each and finally suggesting a through guide line for developing knowledge management implementation frameworks. They have classified the high level knowledge management frameworks as frameworks such as: 1) System approach, 2) Step approach, 3) hybrid approach.(Table 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 shows the comparisons between frameworks under each approach). Table 2.3: Comparisons of system approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) Holsapple Joshi (2002) Jarrar (2002) Gore Gore (1999) Wiig et al. (1997) Plan - Set strategic priority Define and understand knowledge Formulate vision Conceptualize Reflect Execute - - - Act Evaluate - - - Review Knowledge Types / resources Knowledge embedded in participants, culture, infrastructure, artifacts, purpose and strategy - Tacit Knowledge Explicit knowledge - KM processes / activities Acquire, select, internalize and use knowledge Collect, present, distribute and measure knowledge Mainly focuses on knowledge creation and externalization Develop, distribute, combine and consolidate knowledge KM influences / factors Resource influences, managerial influences, environmental influences Knowledge environment - External and internal developments ‘-, not indicated or not clearly indicated Table 2.4: Comparisons of step approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) McCampbell et al. (1999) Wiig (1999) Plan Form powerful coalition Communicate vision of KM Establish teams for needs assessment Analyze the needs of KM Obtain management buy-in Survey and map the knowledge landscape Plan the knowledge strategy Create and define knowledge-related alternatives and potential initiatives Portray benefit expectations for knowledge management initiatives Set knowledge management priorities Determine key knowledge requirements Execute Identify and collect knowledge Design a technological structure Test the technology Maintenance of the technology Retest the technology Training of knowledge workers Roll out the use of KM practices Make systems go live Acquire key knowledge Create integrated knowledge transfer programs Transform, distribute and apply knowledge assets Establish and update a KM infrastructure Manage knowledge assets Construct incentive programs Coordinate KM activities and functions enterprise-wide Facilitate knowledge-focused management Evaluate Track usage Measure quality and productivity Measure the performance of KM practices Conduct a need assessment review Monitor knowledge management Knowledge type / resources Internal knowledge External knowledge Can be inferred from the step: â€Å" manage knowledge assets † KM processes / activities Identify and collect knowledge Acquire, transform, distribute and apply knowledge KM influences / factors - Can be inferred from the steps: ‘construct incentive programs and ‘facilitate knowledge-focused management ‘-, not indicated or not clearly indicated Table 2.5: Comparisons of hybrid approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) Rubenstein Montano et al. (2001) Mentzas (2001) Plan Strategize, Model Awareness plan Execute Act, Transfer Develop, operate Evaluate Revise Measurement Knowledge types / resources Tacit knowledge, Explicit knowledge Knowledge assets KM processes / activities KM tasks Process KM influences / factors Culture, Strategy, learning Strategy, Structure, System By study on these knowledge frameworks creator an absolute knowledge management implementation framework may include the possible accesses on success of knowledge management. Further more, the obstacles and developers should bear in their mind that if they want to analyze managers in regard with, which elements are likely to disrupt the knowledge management implementation success and which elements may enable their effort towards knowledge management achievements. Finally, a knowledge management implementation frame work should â€Å"make a correspondence view among social and technological approach to knowledge management†. Consideration of the authors demonstrate that most of the time this correspondence is disturb in favor of one approach while the other approach is either totally neglected or received incomplete attention (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). Different types of knowledge resources are identified. The activities and processes which can help to manage them should be mentioned in the knowledge management implementation framework. As an example, there is some of knowledge management processes such as: acquiring, capturing, creating, organizing, storing, accessing, transferring, sharing, applying, distributing and using knowledge. The suggested clues by Wong and Aspinwall for developing a knowledge management implementation framework include five factors, which are as follows: (1) Incorporate a clear structure to organize the tasks. (2) Address the different knowledge resources or types. (3) Include the knowledge management processes or activities that manipulate the knowledge. (4) Point out the influences that can affect the performance of knowledge management. (5) Provide a balanced view between a technological and a social perspective. 2.4 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS CATEGORIZATION 2.4.1 Knowledge Management System Definition Knowledge management system (KMS), are mostly IT based systems for managing knowledge in organizations and are used for supporting, creating, capturing and disseminating of information. The main concept of knowledge management system (KMS) is to make a facility for employees to have an access to the organizations information, sources, document base facts and their solutions. As a matter of fact a knowledge management system (KMS) could be any of the following things: Ø Social computing tools which can help to create a knowledge management system (KMS). Ø Knowledge management system (KMS), assist in creating network maps in organizations which is used in communication among individuals and entities. Ø Document based, any formatted that permits, control, manage. Ø Use Artificial Intelligence (AI), for customized representation schema to demonstrate the problem domain. Further more, the benefits of using knowledge management in organization can be categorized as: 1. Valuable organizational data and information sharing. 2. Reduce redundant work. 3. Decrease time for new incomers like new employees. 4. Retention of intellectual property. Based on this definition Gupta and Sharma (2004) divide knowledge management system into seven major categories, which are as follows (tables 2.6): Table 2.6: Example of KMS Source: Gupta and Sharma (2004) KMS Technology Description Expert Systems, artificial intelligence and knowledge based management system (KBMS) Main purpose of these systems is to capture knowledge and perform analysis on existing knowledge base to assist in decision making. Often associated to rule based and pattern recognition systems. Computer Supported Collaborative Work (Groupware) Systems that permit sharing and collaborative work. Often described synonymously to Lotus Notes. However, one could suggest that asynchronous (e-mail, wikis e-log) and synchronous systems (videoconference, chat) are newer applications that can fall into this category (Bates and Poole, 2003). Groupware can also include Group Support Systems (GSS) that is intended to support groups make decision (Mandviwalla, 1994). Document Management Systems Systems that support the need for managing text and images to make information much more accessible. Similar to the idea of office management systems i.e. use of various word documentation and spreadsheet software. Decision support systems (DSS) Business applications that usually contain summaries of large amounts of data, filtered and synthesized particularly to support strategic decision-making. View records related to this term5. The focus of DSS is on analysis of quantitative data and presentation tools for managers. Semantic Networks The focus is on systems that explain not just relationships between entities but the meaning based on how the entities are structured. Can be used to â€Å"represent domain knowledge explicitly and shared† (Gupta and Sharma, 2004). Relational and Object oriented databases Systems that permit management of both structured (relational) and much more complex data sets (OODBMS) Simulation tools Systems that run computer based simulations for a variety of purposes. 2.4.2 Knowledge Management Architecture Base on Gupta and Sharma (2004) findings, they suggest architecture for knowledge management which has seven levels and it is shown in table 2.7. Table 2.7: Overview of Knowledge Management Architecture Source: Form Gupta, Sharma Hsu (2004) Level Key Activities Customer Knowledge Detailed, knowledge sharing relationships. Understanding the requirements of customers. Identifying new opportunities. Stakeholder Relationships Becoming a better knowledge flows among suppliers, shareholders, employees, community, etc. Use this knowledge to inform key points strategies. Business Environment Insights Systematic environmental scanning including political, economic, technology, social and environmental trends. Competitor analysis. Market intelligence systems. Organizational Memory Knowledge sharing. Best practice databases. Directories of expertise. Online documents, procedures and discussion forums. Intranets. Knowledge in Processes Embedding knowledge into business processes and management. Decision-making. Knowledge in Products and Services Knowledge embedded in products. Surround products with knowledge, e.g., in user guides, and enhanced knowledge intensive services. Knowledge in People Knowledge-sharing fairs. Innovation workshops. Expert and learning networks. Communities of knowledge practice. As it shows above there is a seven layer for knowledge management architecture and each level related to a particular aspect of knowledge management. So, in this regard there is a summarization for this table which summarize the important part of this layers and compact it in just three layers, it is summarized in table 2.8 as follows: Table 2.8: Knowledge Management Architecture Source: Gupta, Sharma Hsu (2004) Layer Level Brief Explanation Data Sources layer According to different data sources which are accessible within organizations, this layer has both internal and external data sources. As an example, data repository, email repository, databases. Knowledge Management Layer The processes of knowledge management layer include acquisition, refinement, storage, retrieval, distribution and presentation of required knowledge. An example would be a knowledge base which assists decision making processes during an emergency situation. Knowledge Presentation Layer This layer represents the interface that forms the basis of interaction between users and the system. This can be called a knowledge portal that can guide decision making in dealing with an emergency situation. The knowledge portal can be designed to support communication, collaboration and information sharing requirement. There is two more explanation in detailed view for knowledge management architecture and knowledge management process model. The most important part in knowledge management architecture and knowledge management process are capturing knowledge, create a new knowledge, share it and distribute it as it is shown in 2.1 and 2.2. 2.4.3 Performance of Information Technology (IT) in Knowledge Management System (KMS) Information Technology (IT), plays an important role in acquire, store, disseminate and manage knowledge than ever before. Alavi and Leidner (2001), proposed an admired framework, which can be used to analyze and test the role of Information technology (IT) in design and fulfillment of any Knowledge Management System (KMS). The table (2.9) which is adapted from Alavi and Leidner (2001), shows the different perspectives of knowledge management initiatives and knowledge management system (KMS), design particularly. Table 2.9: Knowledge Perspective and impact on KM and KMS Source: Alavi and Leidner (2001, p.11) Perspective Meaning Implication for KM Impact on KMS Role in IT Knowledge vis-à  -vis data and information Data is consider as a fact, raw numbers, information is processed/ contextual data/ interpreted data knowledge is personalized information e.g this would entail once experience and exposure. KM initiative should expose employees to relevant information and facilitate assimilation of information. KMS may not necessarily be different from an existing information system. The differences are that any KMS should help employees assimilate the information. Role of IT is to ensure KMS design permits information assimilation. Knowledge as a state of the mind Knowledge is ones state of knowing and understanding. KM initiative should provide an information base that enables individuals to recognize the existence of knowledge. This can enhance individual learning and understanding. Accessibility to where knowledge resides rather than to knowledge itself- i.e. provide a means to an end. This would include web and wireless access to knowledge base. Knowledge as an object Knowledge that is stored and subject to manipulation. KM initiative should permit development and management of knowledge base. IT can support KMS to gather, store, and disseminate knowledge. This would include the use collaborative tools e.g. wikis. Knowledge as a process Knowledge visualized as a process of applying expertise. KM initiative should focus on effective flow of knowledge within the realms of knowledge creation, sharing and dissemination. by providing links to various knowledge sources which includes internal and external sources. This would include use of web based systems, hyperlinks, markup languages and access to databases. The idea is to offer a wider breadth and depth of knowledge flows Knowledge and accessibility to information Knowledge is a condition of access to information. KM initiative should provide ease of access to and retrieval of content in a given system. IT can be used to enhance indexing, query and locating relevant information. Knowledge as a capability As a capability knowledge has the potential to influence action. KM initiative should focus on developing core competencies and understanding the strategic intent of the initiative. It can increase the intellectual capital through development of individual and organizational competencies. Table 2.9 proposed that Information technology plays an important role in knowledge management initiatives in organizations. Alavi and Leidner (2001) defined a knowledge management system (KMS) as IT- based system develop to support and enhance the organizational processes of knowledge creation. They observe that not all knowledge management initiatives will implement an IT solution, but they support IT as an enabler of knowledge management (Raman, M. Muthaiyah, S.). In addition, knowledge management system (KMS) can assist organizations in dealing with dynamic and complex situations such as emergencies (Gupta Sharma, 2004). 2.4.4 Appropriate Theories to Knowledge Management Systems (KMS) This part consists of two theories which can help to design and implement decisions of any knowledge management systems (KMS) to support knowledge management in organizations. Those mentioned theories are, Information Processing Theory (IPT), and, Contingency Theory. 2.4.4.1 Information Processing Theory (IPT) George A. Miller (1956), has afforded two theoretical ideas which are the basic concepts of the information processing framework and cognitive psychology. The first approach is â€Å"chunking† and the capacity of short term memory. He insists that short term memory can get just 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus two). A chunk could refer to digits, words, peoples faces or any other meaningful units. The second idea which Miller was mentioned is people process information akin to a computerized system. They take input into the memory like the computer, then the human minds take the information, analyze it, store the content and locate it in the best situation of memory and then retrieve as and when needed based on the given situation. In this context, Burnell (2004), state that:†As diversity of resources, processes or outputs increase inter process coordination requirements and system complexity increase. As uncertainty increases, information processing requirements increases become of managements inability to predict every situation.† Information processing theory is widely applied in the study of human learning and cognitive styles (Miller, 1960). As a matter of fact Information Processing Theory (IPT) has some principles which are often applied by instructors for the following reasons: Ø Gain the students attention Ø Point out important and critical chunks of information, separating them from trivial ones. Ø Provide opportunities for students in linking new to existing information. Ø Presenting information in clear manner. Ø Emphasize on meaning of information i.e. not memorizing them. Actually, those mentioned principles for information processing theory can be applied to design of knowledge management system (KMS) to support emergency preparedness as well (Kostman, 2004). Particularly, in approaching emergency situations, knowledge management system can be elaborated to enable decision makers to: Ø Retrieve information that is critical, quickly. Ø Focus on the situation without being loss amidst voluminous information. Ø Create and share a knowledge base by linking past experience to existing information base. Ø Structure emergency related information clearly. Ø Understand different meaning and interpretation of critical terminology used in dealing with an emergency. 2.4.4.2 Contingency Theory Contingency theory was founded by Lawrence and Lorsch (1967), in the study of ten firms in plastic, food, containers, which are three different i Knowledge Management in Malaysia Knowledge Management in Malaysia CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 OVERVIEW It is so difficult and though for the managers of the organizations to apply knowledge management in their departments, because this major is still new in so many aspects such as business environment and organizational culture or behavior and it has a long way to be completed. It is hard for the managers to believe that, it has so many benefits if they use knowledge management tools in their organizations. Managers should bear in their mind that knowledge management is not an automatic practice, it must be initiated by people and have the support of the whole organization. Something like these myths need to be eliminated and the exact meaning of knowledge management must be clearly understood by managers and the rest of the organizations. This will help the managers to abundantly getting help from knowledge management and apply it in the organizations (Sobahle 2005). The study on American Productivity and Quality Centers International Bench-marking shows that, about 11 organizations are working on the knowledge management area which are: Arthur Andersen; Chevron Corporation; Dow Chemical Company; Hughes Space Communications; Kaiser Permanente; Price Waterhouse; Sequent Computer Systems; Skandia AFS; Texas Instruments; USAA; and National Security Agency, the following was recognized (Ishak, 2002): Share the understanding those techniques which can be used. Apply the techniques to new directions. Further more, the other issues which can assure the success of knowledge management initiatives are something like, emphasizes on the issues such as employees issues, top management leadership and commitment, organizational culture and technological infrastructure. This chapter approaches the literature review on knowledge management. In this chapter the try is made to clarify some of the most important key factors of knowledge management and analyze their respective literature. The attempt is made to show the different aspects of knowledge management. It has a brief introduction on knowledge management which is used by Malaysian organizations then it will be explain about the knowledge management frame works and architectures. In this chapter the most two important factors in knowledge management which, technological approach and human approach, are considered. This chapter will finish by the knowledge management concern, issues and at last discuss about the benefit of knowledge management will be considered. 2.2 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIA Over past two decades Malaysia has been transitioning from relying on a production based- economy to a knowledge-based economy (Chang, 2005). The concept of knowledge management in Malaysia was born with the establishment of the â€Å"Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC)† in 1990s to accelerate this concept in Malaysia. Actually, there are so many Malaysian companies which they are working on knowledge management and they realize and understand the importance of it in the professional life. In January 15, 2002, one of the prestigious magazines in Malaysia, Computerworld Malaysia organized the Knowledge Management Roundtable ‘A Vital Strategy or Expensive Toy. The participants from various sectors in Malaysia shared their point of views and approaches implemented and exchanged ideas in practicing knowledge management (Chang, 2005). As an example for the practical aspect, there are a number of organizations in Malaysia which are successful in knowledge management initiatives, such as: Malaysian Institute of Microelectronic Systems (MIMOS), MAMPU, Bank Negara Malaysia, Siemens, Nokia Malaysia and Telekom Malaysia, Tenaga Nasional Berhad and Petroleum Nasional Berhad (Petronas) are examples of organizations in Malaysia that have embarked on KM initiatives. There are so many studies on knowledge management in Malaysia, and the structure of Malaysia papers in Malaysia seems to be incomprehensive, there are a few number of out standing articles to mention, which shows in table 2.1. Table 2.1: Knowledge Management: Malaysian Studies Title Author/ Date/Journal Nature of Work Intellectual capital and business performance in Malaysian industries Bontis, Chua Richardson (2000) Journal of Intellectual Capital Research Study (Conducted among Malaysian firms) Knowledge management in healthcare: towards ‘knowledge-driven decision- support services Abidi, (2001) International Journal of Medical Informatics Case Study (Universiti Sains Malaysia Hospital located in Kota Baharu, Malaysia) Managing human resources toward achieving knowledge management Yahya Goh, (2002) Journal of Knowledge Management Research Study (Conducted among Malaysian firms) Knowledge management in a public organization: a study on the relationship between organizational elements and the performance of knowledge transfer. Syed Ikhsan Rowland, (2004) Journal of Knowledge Management Case Study (Ministry of Entrepreneur development of Malaysia) Benchmarking knowledge management in a public organization in Malaysia Syed Ikhsan Rowland, (2004) Benchmarking: An International Journal Case Study (Ministry of Entrepreneur development of Malaysia) An empirical study of perceived importance and actual implementation of knowledge management process in the Malaysian telecommunication industry Chong Yeow, (2005) Proceedings of ICTM Research Study (Study among Malaysian telecommunication Industry KM critical success factors: A comparison of perceived importance versus implementation in Malaysian ICT companies. Chong, (2006) The Learning Organization Research Study (194 Malaysian ICT companies) KM implementation in Malaysian telecommunication industry an empirical analysis. Wei, Choy Yeow, (2006) Industrial Management Data Systems Research Study (289 employees working in Telecommunication organizations in Malaysia) KM implementation and its influence on performance: an empirical evidence from Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies Chong, (2006) Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Research Study (Study among Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies) Exploring KM issues and KM performance outcomes: empirical evidence from Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies Chong Lin (2006) International Journal of Technology Management Research Study (Study among Malaysian multimedia super corridor companies) An exploratory study on knowledge management adoption in the Malaysian Industry. Wong, (2008) International Journal of Business Information Systems Research Study (exploratory KM survey conducted in the Malaysian industry) 2.3 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IMPLEMENTATION FRAMEWORKS According to Von Krogh (1998), which he takes a business perspective stating that KMS help increase competitiveness, the purpose of implementing KMS in organizations are various. KMS leads to grater innovation and responsiveness, Hackbarth (1998). Davenport and Prusak (1998) provide three reasons why KMS are implemented in organizations which are as follows: Ø To enhance visibility of knowledge in organizations through the use of maps, hypertexts, yellow pages, directories etc. Ø To build a knowledge sharing culture i.e. create avenues for employees to share knowledge. Ø To develop a knowledge infrastructure, not confined to technology solely, rather create an environment that permits collaborative work. These three things which were proposed by Davenport and Prusak (1998) imply that KMS can support an organization in planning for and dealing with emergencies. Many organizations are still wrestling with their knowledge management and failing to realize its full potential. This is due to their lack of the support of strong theoretical foundation to guide them in its implementation (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). Unfortunately, many organizations do not have a clear knowledge management implementation plan in mind (Liebowitz, 1999). Therefore, in order for an organization to be victorious in its effort to manage knowledge, a guiding framework is essential. This is why in this part a review of diverse knowledge management implementation frameworks and models is presented. The framework consents to researchers as well as practitioners to measure the current state of knowledge management effectively and systematically. Thus, the knowledge management framework should provide not only a unified view of knowledge management phenomena but also help investigators study the field of knowledge management in an organized way. There have been few efforts to de velop a framework of knowledge management. However, none of the frameworks can provide a complete and generalized frame for knowledge management by defining fundamental attributes of knowledge management and their interrelationships because knowledge management can be viewed differently on ones background and interests (Chong, 2005). To know the exact value of knowledge management, an architecture of it, would provide the necessary understanding of different components like, knowledge management activities, knowledge management resources, knowledge management influences (Holsapple Joshi, 1997). The improvement of a framework is to follow and track the progress and maturity of knowledge management of an enterprise, so, it would serve to support the industry-wide improvement of knowledge management programs. Further more, it would provide an acceptable frame of reference for the assessment of the adequacies of an organization by government, commercial customers and prime contractors (Chong, 2005). The knowledge management frameworks can be classified under four categories (Table 2.2) Which are namely, knowledge creation framework, knowledge cycle processes of knowledge management, cases on knowledge management initiatives in industry and high-level knowledge management frameworks. Table 2.2: KM Frameworks and their examples in the literature Knowledge Management Frameworks Examples Knowledge Creation Framework Nonaka(1991, 1994), Nonaka Takeuchi (1995) Knowledge Cycle Processes of KM Bose Sugumaran (2003) Cases on KM Initiatives in Industry Apostolou Mentzas (1998), Lai chu (2002) High-Level KM Frameworks Holsapple Joshi (2002), Jarrar (2002), Wiig (1997) Nonaka and Takeuchi are tried to explain the progress and adaption between tacit and explicit knowledge. In fact, knowledge creation framework is not a knowledge management framework, the reason is, and it only deals with the creation of knowledge which is only a share of what constitutes knowledge management. Also, the knowledge cycle processes of knowledge management frameworks are providing a set of activities where the prominence is on the knowledge cycle processes or activities. They mainly address the phases of knowledge flow (from creation to application) in an organization without providing guidance on how to implement knowledge management. The framework on knowledge management initiatives in industry provide a reference to facilitate the structuring, analysis and evaluation of the knowledge management initiatives undertaken in various case companies. Lastly, High-Level knowledge management frameworks are the ones providing more detailed directions on the implementation of kn owledge management. This type of framework seems to address not only the question of what is but also how to because it prescribes and suggest ways for organizations to engage in knowledge management activities (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). In their review of literature, Wong and Aspinwall, try to have an organized review of the various available frameworks for knowledge management implementation. The acceptable thing for the review was to classify the knowledge management implementation frameworks, find out the short comings of each and finally suggesting a through guide line for developing knowledge management implementation frameworks. They have classified the high level knowledge management frameworks as frameworks such as: 1) System approach, 2) Step approach, 3) hybrid approach.(Table 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 shows the comparisons between frameworks under each approach). Table 2.3: Comparisons of system approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) Holsapple Joshi (2002) Jarrar (2002) Gore Gore (1999) Wiig et al. (1997) Plan - Set strategic priority Define and understand knowledge Formulate vision Conceptualize Reflect Execute - - - Act Evaluate - - - Review Knowledge Types / resources Knowledge embedded in participants, culture, infrastructure, artifacts, purpose and strategy - Tacit Knowledge Explicit knowledge - KM processes / activities Acquire, select, internalize and use knowledge Collect, present, distribute and measure knowledge Mainly focuses on knowledge creation and externalization Develop, distribute, combine and consolidate knowledge KM influences / factors Resource influences, managerial influences, environmental influences Knowledge environment - External and internal developments ‘-, not indicated or not clearly indicated Table 2.4: Comparisons of step approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) McCampbell et al. (1999) Wiig (1999) Plan Form powerful coalition Communicate vision of KM Establish teams for needs assessment Analyze the needs of KM Obtain management buy-in Survey and map the knowledge landscape Plan the knowledge strategy Create and define knowledge-related alternatives and potential initiatives Portray benefit expectations for knowledge management initiatives Set knowledge management priorities Determine key knowledge requirements Execute Identify and collect knowledge Design a technological structure Test the technology Maintenance of the technology Retest the technology Training of knowledge workers Roll out the use of KM practices Make systems go live Acquire key knowledge Create integrated knowledge transfer programs Transform, distribute and apply knowledge assets Establish and update a KM infrastructure Manage knowledge assets Construct incentive programs Coordinate KM activities and functions enterprise-wide Facilitate knowledge-focused management Evaluate Track usage Measure quality and productivity Measure the performance of KM practices Conduct a need assessment review Monitor knowledge management Knowledge type / resources Internal knowledge External knowledge Can be inferred from the step: â€Å" manage knowledge assets † KM processes / activities Identify and collect knowledge Acquire, transform, distribute and apply knowledge KM influences / factors - Can be inferred from the steps: ‘construct incentive programs and ‘facilitate knowledge-focused management ‘-, not indicated or not clearly indicated Table 2.5: Comparisons of hybrid approach frameworks Source: Wong Aspinwall (2004) Rubenstein Montano et al. (2001) Mentzas (2001) Plan Strategize, Model Awareness plan Execute Act, Transfer Develop, operate Evaluate Revise Measurement Knowledge types / resources Tacit knowledge, Explicit knowledge Knowledge assets KM processes / activities KM tasks Process KM influences / factors Culture, Strategy, learning Strategy, Structure, System By study on these knowledge frameworks creator an absolute knowledge management implementation framework may include the possible accesses on success of knowledge management. Further more, the obstacles and developers should bear in their mind that if they want to analyze managers in regard with, which elements are likely to disrupt the knowledge management implementation success and which elements may enable their effort towards knowledge management achievements. Finally, a knowledge management implementation frame work should â€Å"make a correspondence view among social and technological approach to knowledge management†. Consideration of the authors demonstrate that most of the time this correspondence is disturb in favor of one approach while the other approach is either totally neglected or received incomplete attention (Wong Aspinwall, 2004). Different types of knowledge resources are identified. The activities and processes which can help to manage them should be mentioned in the knowledge management implementation framework. As an example, there is some of knowledge management processes such as: acquiring, capturing, creating, organizing, storing, accessing, transferring, sharing, applying, distributing and using knowledge. The suggested clues by Wong and Aspinwall for developing a knowledge management implementation framework include five factors, which are as follows: (1) Incorporate a clear structure to organize the tasks. (2) Address the different knowledge resources or types. (3) Include the knowledge management processes or activities that manipulate the knowledge. (4) Point out the influences that can affect the performance of knowledge management. (5) Provide a balanced view between a technological and a social perspective. 2.4 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS CATEGORIZATION 2.4.1 Knowledge Management System Definition Knowledge management system (KMS), are mostly IT based systems for managing knowledge in organizations and are used for supporting, creating, capturing and disseminating of information. The main concept of knowledge management system (KMS) is to make a facility for employees to have an access to the organizations information, sources, document base facts and their solutions. As a matter of fact a knowledge management system (KMS) could be any of the following things: Ø Social computing tools which can help to create a knowledge management system (KMS). Ø Knowledge management system (KMS), assist in creating network maps in organizations which is used in communication among individuals and entities. Ø Document based, any formatted that permits, control, manage. Ø Use Artificial Intelligence (AI), for customized representation schema to demonstrate the problem domain. Further more, the benefits of using knowledge management in organization can be categorized as: 1. Valuable organizational data and information sharing. 2. Reduce redundant work. 3. Decrease time for new incomers like new employees. 4. Retention of intellectual property. Based on this definition Gupta and Sharma (2004) divide knowledge management system into seven major categories, which are as follows (tables 2.6): Table 2.6: Example of KMS Source: Gupta and Sharma (2004) KMS Technology Description Expert Systems, artificial intelligence and knowledge based management system (KBMS) Main purpose of these systems is to capture knowledge and perform analysis on existing knowledge base to assist in decision making. Often associated to rule based and pattern recognition systems. Computer Supported Collaborative Work (Groupware) Systems that permit sharing and collaborative work. Often described synonymously to Lotus Notes. However, one could suggest that asynchronous (e-mail, wikis e-log) and synchronous systems (videoconference, chat) are newer applications that can fall into this category (Bates and Poole, 2003). Groupware can also include Group Support Systems (GSS) that is intended to support groups make decision (Mandviwalla, 1994). Document Management Systems Systems that support the need for managing text and images to make information much more accessible. Similar to the idea of office management systems i.e. use of various word documentation and spreadsheet software. Decision support systems (DSS) Business applications that usually contain summaries of large amounts of data, filtered and synthesized particularly to support strategic decision-making. View records related to this term5. The focus of DSS is on analysis of quantitative data and presentation tools for managers. Semantic Networks The focus is on systems that explain not just relationships between entities but the meaning based on how the entities are structured. Can be used to â€Å"represent domain knowledge explicitly and shared† (Gupta and Sharma, 2004). Relational and Object oriented databases Systems that permit management of both structured (relational) and much more complex data sets (OODBMS) Simulation tools Systems that run computer based simulations for a variety of purposes. 2.4.2 Knowledge Management Architecture Base on Gupta and Sharma (2004) findings, they suggest architecture for knowledge management which has seven levels and it is shown in table 2.7. Table 2.7: Overview of Knowledge Management Architecture Source: Form Gupta, Sharma Hsu (2004) Level Key Activities Customer Knowledge Detailed, knowledge sharing relationships. Understanding the requirements of customers. Identifying new opportunities. Stakeholder Relationships Becoming a better knowledge flows among suppliers, shareholders, employees, community, etc. Use this knowledge to inform key points strategies. Business Environment Insights Systematic environmental scanning including political, economic, technology, social and environmental trends. Competitor analysis. Market intelligence systems. Organizational Memory Knowledge sharing. Best practice databases. Directories of expertise. Online documents, procedures and discussion forums. Intranets. Knowledge in Processes Embedding knowledge into business processes and management. Decision-making. Knowledge in Products and Services Knowledge embedded in products. Surround products with knowledge, e.g., in user guides, and enhanced knowledge intensive services. Knowledge in People Knowledge-sharing fairs. Innovation workshops. Expert and learning networks. Communities of knowledge practice. As it shows above there is a seven layer for knowledge management architecture and each level related to a particular aspect of knowledge management. So, in this regard there is a summarization for this table which summarize the important part of this layers and compact it in just three layers, it is summarized in table 2.8 as follows: Table 2.8: Knowledge Management Architecture Source: Gupta, Sharma Hsu (2004) Layer Level Brief Explanation Data Sources layer According to different data sources which are accessible within organizations, this layer has both internal and external data sources. As an example, data repository, email repository, databases. Knowledge Management Layer The processes of knowledge management layer include acquisition, refinement, storage, retrieval, distribution and presentation of required knowledge. An example would be a knowledge base which assists decision making processes during an emergency situation. Knowledge Presentation Layer This layer represents the interface that forms the basis of interaction between users and the system. This can be called a knowledge portal that can guide decision making in dealing with an emergency situation. The knowledge portal can be designed to support communication, collaboration and information sharing requirement. There is two more explanation in detailed view for knowledge management architecture and knowledge management process model. The most important part in knowledge management architecture and knowledge management process are capturing knowledge, create a new knowledge, share it and distribute it as it is shown in 2.1 and 2.2. 2.4.3 Performance of Information Technology (IT) in Knowledge Management System (KMS) Information Technology (IT), plays an important role in acquire, store, disseminate and manage knowledge than ever before. Alavi and Leidner (2001), proposed an admired framework, which can be used to analyze and test the role of Information technology (IT) in design and fulfillment of any Knowledge Management System (KMS). The table (2.9) which is adapted from Alavi and Leidner (2001), shows the different perspectives of knowledge management initiatives and knowledge management system (KMS), design particularly. Table 2.9: Knowledge Perspective and impact on KM and KMS Source: Alavi and Leidner (2001, p.11) Perspective Meaning Implication for KM Impact on KMS Role in IT Knowledge vis-à  -vis data and information Data is consider as a fact, raw numbers, information is processed/ contextual data/ interpreted data knowledge is personalized information e.g this would entail once experience and exposure. KM initiative should expose employees to relevant information and facilitate assimilation of information. KMS may not necessarily be different from an existing information system. The differences are that any KMS should help employees assimilate the information. Role of IT is to ensure KMS design permits information assimilation. Knowledge as a state of the mind Knowledge is ones state of knowing and understanding. KM initiative should provide an information base that enables individuals to recognize the existence of knowledge. This can enhance individual learning and understanding. Accessibility to where knowledge resides rather than to knowledge itself- i.e. provide a means to an end. This would include web and wireless access to knowledge base. Knowledge as an object Knowledge that is stored and subject to manipulation. KM initiative should permit development and management of knowledge base. IT can support KMS to gather, store, and disseminate knowledge. This would include the use collaborative tools e.g. wikis. Knowledge as a process Knowledge visualized as a process of applying expertise. KM initiative should focus on effective flow of knowledge within the realms of knowledge creation, sharing and dissemination. by providing links to various knowledge sources which includes internal and external sources. This would include use of web based systems, hyperlinks, markup languages and access to databases. The idea is to offer a wider breadth and depth of knowledge flows Knowledge and accessibility to information Knowledge is a condition of access to information. KM initiative should provide ease of access to and retrieval of content in a given system. IT can be used to enhance indexing, query and locating relevant information. Knowledge as a capability As a capability knowledge has the potential to influence action. KM initiative should focus on developing core competencies and understanding the strategic intent of the initiative. It can increase the intellectual capital through development of individual and organizational competencies. Table 2.9 proposed that Information technology plays an important role in knowledge management initiatives in organizations. Alavi and Leidner (2001) defined a knowledge management system (KMS) as IT- based system develop to support and enhance the organizational processes of knowledge creation. They observe that not all knowledge management initiatives will implement an IT solution, but they support IT as an enabler of knowledge management (Raman, M. Muthaiyah, S.). In addition, knowledge management system (KMS) can assist organizations in dealing with dynamic and complex situations such as emergencies (Gupta Sharma, 2004). 2.4.4 Appropriate Theories to Knowledge Management Systems (KMS) This part consists of two theories which can help to design and implement decisions of any knowledge management systems (KMS) to support knowledge management in organizations. Those mentioned theories are, Information Processing Theory (IPT), and, Contingency Theory. 2.4.4.1 Information Processing Theory (IPT) George A. Miller (1956), has afforded two theoretical ideas which are the basic concepts of the information processing framework and cognitive psychology. The first approach is â€Å"chunking† and the capacity of short term memory. He insists that short term memory can get just 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus two). A chunk could refer to digits, words, peoples faces or any other meaningful units. The second idea which Miller was mentioned is people process information akin to a computerized system. They take input into the memory like the computer, then the human minds take the information, analyze it, store the content and locate it in the best situation of memory and then retrieve as and when needed based on the given situation. In this context, Burnell (2004), state that:†As diversity of resources, processes or outputs increase inter process coordination requirements and system complexity increase. As uncertainty increases, information processing requirements increases become of managements inability to predict every situation.† Information processing theory is widely applied in the study of human learning and cognitive styles (Miller, 1960). As a matter of fact Information Processing Theory (IPT) has some principles which are often applied by instructors for the following reasons: Ø Gain the students attention Ø Point out important and critical chunks of information, separating them from trivial ones. Ø Provide opportunities for students in linking new to existing information. Ø Presenting information in clear manner. Ø Emphasize on meaning of information i.e. not memorizing them. Actually, those mentioned principles for information processing theory can be applied to design of knowledge management system (KMS) to support emergency preparedness as well (Kostman, 2004). Particularly, in approaching emergency situations, knowledge management system can be elaborated to enable decision makers to: Ø Retrieve information that is critical, quickly. Ø Focus on the situation without being loss amidst voluminous information. Ø Create and share a knowledge base by linking past experience to existing information base. Ø Structure emergency related information clearly. Ø Understand different meaning and interpretation of critical terminology used in dealing with an emergency. 2.4.4.2 Contingency Theory Contingency theory was founded by Lawrence and Lorsch (1967), in the study of ten firms in plastic, food, containers, which are three different i